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The
Elements of Style

by

William Strunk, Jr.

Professor of English
Cornell University

Privately Printed
Ithaca, New York
1918

Copyright
1918
By William Strunk, Jr.

Press of W. P. Humphrey, Geneva, N.Y.

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTORY

2. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE
   1. Form the possessive singular of nouns with 's
   2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a
      comma after each term except the last
   3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas
   4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause
   5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma
   6. Do not break sentences in two
   7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the
      grammatical subject
   8. Divide words at line-ends, in accordance with their formation and
      pronunciation

3. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
   1. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic
   2. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in
      conformity with the beginning
   3. Use the active voice
   4. Put statements in positive form
   5. Omit needless words
   6. Avoid a succession of loose sentences
   7. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form
   8. Keep related words together
   9. In summaries, keep to one tense
  10. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end

4. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM

5. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED

6. WORDS COMMONLY MISSPELLED







I. INTRODUCTORY

This book is intended for use in English courses in which the practice of
composition is combined with the study of literature.  It aims to give in
brief space the principal requirements of plain English style.  It aims to
lighten the task of instructor and student by concentrating attention (in
Chapters II and III) on a few essentials, the rules of usage and principles
of composition most commonly violated.  The numbers of the sections may be
used as references in correcting manuscript.

The book covers only a small portion of the field of English style, but the
experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials, students
profit most by individual instruction based on the problems of their own
work, and that each instructor has his own body of theory, which he prefers
to that offered by any textbook.

The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell University
have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript.  Mr.  George
McLane Wood has kindly consented to the inclusion under Rule 11 of some
material from his Suggestions to Authors.

The following books are recommended for reference or further study: in
connection with Chapters II and IV, F. Howard Collins, Author and Printer
(Henry Frowde); Chicago University Press, Manual of Style; T. L. De Vinne
Correct Composition (The Century Company); Horace Hart, Rules for
Compositors and Printers (Oxford University Press); George McLane Wood,
Extracts from the Style-Book of the Government Printing Office (United
States Geological Survey); in connection with Chapters III and V, Sir
Arthur Quiller-Couch, The Art of Writing (Putnams), especially the chapter,
Interlude on Jargon; George McLane Wood, Suggestions to Authors (United
States Geological Survey); John Leslie Hall, English Usage (Scott, Foresman
and Co.); James P. Kelly, Workmanship in Words (Little, Brown and Co.).

It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the
rules of rhetoric.  When they do so, however, the reader will usually find
in the sentence some compensating merit, attained at the cost of the
violation.  Unless he is certain of doing as well, he will probably do best
to follow the rules.  After he has learned, by their guidance, to write
plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him look, for the secrets of
style, to the study of the masters of literature.




II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE


1. Form the possessive singular of nouns with 's.

   Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,

   Charles's friend Burns's poems the witch's malice

   This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of
   the Oxford University Press.

   Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names in -es and -is,
   the possessive Jesus', and such forms as for conscience' sake, for
   righteousness' sake.  But such forms as Achilles' heel, Moses' laws,
   Isis' temple are commonly replaced by

   the heel of Achilles the laws of Moses the temple of Isis

   The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, and oneself have no
   apostrophe.


2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma
   after each term except the last.

   Thus write,

   red, white, and blue honest, energetic, but headstrong He opened the
   letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.

   This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the
   Oxford University Press.

   In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as

   Brown, Shipley and Company

   The abbreviation etc., even if only a single term comes before it, is
   always preceded by a comma.


3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.

   The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to
   travel on foot.

   This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether
   a single word, such as however, or a brief phrase, is or is not
   parenthetic.  If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but
   slight, the writer may safely omit the commas.  But whether the
   interruption be slight or considerable, he must never omit one comma and
   leave the other.  Such punctuation as

   Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,

   or My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,

   is indefensible.

   Non-restrictive relative clauses are, in accordance with this rule, set
   off by commas.

   The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more
   interested.

   Similar clauses introduced by where and when are similarly punctuated.

   In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired
   by France.  Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient
   Mariner, is a few miles from Bridgewater.

   In these sentences the clauses introduced by which, when, and where are
   non-restrictive; they do not limit the application of the words on which
   they depend, but add, parenthetically, statements supplementing those in
   the principal clauses.  Each sentence is a combination of two statements
   which might have been made independently.

   The audience was at first indifferent.  Later it became more and more
   interested.  Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but
   recently been acquired by France.  Coleridge wrote The Rime of the
   Ancient Mariner at Nether Stowey.  Nether Stowey is only a few miles
   from Bridgewater.

   Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas.

   The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.

   In this sentence the relative clause restricts the application of the
   word candidate to a single person.  Unlike those above, the sentence
   cannot be split into two independent statements.

   The abbreviations etc.  and jr.  are always preceded by a comma, and
   except at the end of a sentence, followed by one.

   Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between
   commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses
   preceding or following the main clause of a sentence.  The sentences
   quoted in this section and under Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18 should
   afford sufficient guidance.

   If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the
   first comma before the conjunction, not after it.

   He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery,
   greeted us with a smile.


4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause.

   The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its
   first years can no longer be reconstructed.  The situation is perilous,
   but there is still one chance of escape.

   Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in
   need of rewriting.  As they make complete sense when the comma is
   reached, the second clause has the appearance of an after-thought.
   Further, and, is the least specific of connectives.  Used between
   independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between
   them without defining that relation.  In the example above, the relation
   is that of cause and result.  The two sentences might be rewritten:

   As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its
   first years can no longer be reconstructed.  Although the situation is
   perilous, there is still one chance of escape.

   Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:

   Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story
   of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.  In this perilous
   situation, there is still one chance of escape.

   But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and
   periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from
   becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief.
   Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in
   easy, unstudied writing.  But a writer should be careful not to
   construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).

   Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as (in
   the sense of because), for, or, nor, and while (in the sense of and at
   the same time) likewise require a comma before the conjunction.

   If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off
   by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed
   after the conjunction.

   The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there
   is still one chance of escape.

   For two-part sentences connected by an adverb, see the next section.


5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.

   If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a
   conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of
   punctuation is a semicolon.

   Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting
   adventures.  It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before
   dark.

   It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences
   each, replacing the semicolons by periods.

   Stevenson's romances are entertaining.  They are full of exciting
   adventures.  It is nearly half past five.  We cannot reach town before
   dark.

   If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).

   Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting
   adventures.  It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town
   before dark.

   Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as
   accordingly, besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a
   conjunction, the semicolon is still required.

   I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my
   way about.

   In general, however, it is best, in writing, to avoid using so in this
   manner; there is danger that the writer who uses it at all may use it
   too often.  A simple correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the
   word so, and begin the first clause with as:

   As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my
   way about.

   If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually
   permissible:

   Man proposes, God disposes.  The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the
   portcullis was drawn up.


6. Do not break sentences in two.

   In other words, do not use periods for commas.

   I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago.  Coming home from
   Liverpool to New York.  He was an interesting talker.  A man who had
   traveled all over the world, and lived in half a dozen countries.

   In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma,
   and the following word begun with a small letter.

   It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the
   purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:

   Again and again he called out. No reply.

   The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and
   that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in punctuation.

   Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the
   punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly mastered
   that their application becomes second nature.


7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the
   grammatical subject.

   Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.

   The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the
   woman.  If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must
   recast the sentence:

   He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.

   Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns
   in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same
   rule if they begin the sentence.

   On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station.  When he
   arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends met him at the
   station.  A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defence
   of the city.  A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the
   defence of the city.  Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to
   me.  Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy.  Without a friend
   to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible.  Without a friend to
   counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible.

   Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.

   Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap.


8. Divide words at line-ends, in accordance with their formation and
   pronunciation.

   If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a
   word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves
   cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a
   long word.  No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down.  The
   principles most frequently applicable are:

   1. Divide the word according to its formation:

   know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe
   (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);

   2. Divide "on the vowel:"

   edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious;
   oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions possible);
   deco-rative; presi-dent;

   3. Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the
   simple form of the word:

      Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

   The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:

   for-tune; pic-ture; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either
   division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.

   The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of
   pages of any carefully printed book.



III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION


1. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.

   If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you
   intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it
   into topics.  Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary
   work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining
   an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best
   written in a single paragraph.  After the paragraph has been written, it
   should be examined to see whether subdivision will not improve it.

   Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of
   which should be made the subject of a paragraph.  The object of treating
   each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader.
   The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in
   the development of the subject has been reached.

   The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition.
   For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single
   paragraph.  One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:

   1. Account of the work.
   2. Critical discussion.

   A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of
   seven paragraphs:

   1. Facts of composition and publication.
   2. Kind of poem; metrical form.
   3. Subject.
   4. Treatment of subject.
   5. For what chiefly remarkable.
   6. Wherein characteristic of the writer.
   7. Relationship to other works.

   The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem.  Usually,
   paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the
   poem (the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then
   state the subject and outline its development.  If the poem is a
   narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no
   more than a concise summary of the action.  Paragraph D would indicate
   the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would
   indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.

   A novel might be discussed under the heads:

   1. Setting.
   2. Plot.
   3. Characters.
   4. Purpose.

   A historical event might be discussed under the heads:

   1. What led up to the event.
   2. Account of the event.
   3. What the event led up to.

   In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably
   find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given.

   As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as
   paragraphs.  An exception may be made of sentences of transition,
   indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument.

   In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by
   itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker.
   The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined,
   is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction.


2. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in conformity
   with the beginning.

   Again, the object is to aid the reader.  The practice here recommended
   enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to
   read it, and to retain the purpose in mind as he ends it.  For this
   reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in
   exposition and argument, is that in which

   1. the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;
   2. the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the
      statement made in the topic sentence; and
   3. the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic
      sentence or states some important consequence.

   Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly
   to be avoided.

   If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to
   what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be
   expressed.  This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (again;
   therefore; for the same reason) in the topic sentence.  Sometimes,
   however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more
   sentences of introduction or transition.  If more than one such sentence
   is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional
   sentences as a separate paragraph.

   According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate
   the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of
   several different ways.  He may make the meaning of the topic sentence
   clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by
   denying the converse, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he
   may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its
   implications and consequences.  In a long paragraph, he may carry out
   several of these processes.

   1 Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon alone.
   1 Topic sentence.  2 If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it is no
   longer a walking tour in anything but name; it is something else and
   more in the nature of a picnic.  2 The meaning made clearer by denial of
   the contrary.  3 A walking tour should be gone upon alone, because
   freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop and go on,
   and follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and because you
   must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a champion walker,
   nor mince in time with a girl.  3 The topic sentence repeated, in
   abridged form, and supported by three reasons; the meaning of the third
   ("you must have your own pace") made clearer by denying the converse.  4
   And you must be open to all impressions and let your thoughts take
   colour from what you see.  4 A fourth reason, stated in two forms.  5
   You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon.  5 The same reason,
   stated in still another form.  6 "I cannot see the wit," says Hazlitt,
   "of walking and talking at the same time.  6-7 The same reason as stated
   by Hazlitt.  7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the
   country," which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter.  8
   There should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the
   meditative silence of the morning.  8 Repetition, in paraphrase, of the
   quotation from Hazlitt.  9 And so long as a man is reasoning he cannot
   surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much motion in
   the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of the
   brain, and ends in a peace that passes comprehension.--Stevenson,
   Walking Tours.  9 Final statement of the fourth reason, in language
   amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion.

   1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different
   conception of history grew up.  1 Topic sentence.  2 Historians then
   came to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to
   solve a problem; to explain or illustrate the successive phases of
   national growth, prosperity, and adversity.  2 The meaning of the topic
   sentence made clearer; the new conception of history defined.  3 The
   history of morals, of industry, of intellect, and of art; the changes
   that take place in manners or beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed
   in successive periods; the rise, fall, and modification of political
   constitutions; in a word, all the conditions of national well-being
   became the subjects of their works.  3 The definition expanded.  4 They
   sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings.  4
   The definition explained by contrast.  5 They looked especially in
   history for the chain of causes and effects.  5 The definition
   supplemented: another element in the new conception of history.  6 They
   undertook to study in the past the physiology of nations, and hoped by
   applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons
   of real value about the conditions on which the welfare of society
   mainly depend.--Lecky, The Political Value of History.  6 Conclusion: an
   important consequence of the new conception of history.

   In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a
   concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details
   that follow.

   The breeze served us admirably.  The campaign opened with a series of
   reverses.  The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set
   of entries.

   But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism.  More
   commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what
   the paragraph is to be principally concerned.

   At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.  He picked up
   the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.  Another flight of
   steps, and they emerged on the roof.

   The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without
   even this semblance of a topic sentence.  The break between them serves
   the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail
   of the action.


3. Use the active voice.

   The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:

   I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.

   This is much better than

   My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.

   The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise.  If the
   writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me,"

   My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,

   it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or
   the world at large, that will always remember this visit?

   This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely
   discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes
   necessary.

   The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.  Modern
   readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration.

   The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of
   the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern
   readers.  The need of making a particular word the subject of the
   sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to
   be used.

   The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible
   writing.  This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with
   action, but in writing of any kind.  Many a tame sentence of description
   or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a
   transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as
   there is, or could be heard.

   There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground.  Dead
   leaves covered the ground.  The sound of the falls could still be heard.
   The sound of the falls still reached our ears.  The reason that he left
   college was that his health became impaired.  Failing health compelled
   him to leave college.  It was not long before he was very sorry that he
   had said what he had.  He soon repented his words.

   As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another.

   Gold was not allowed to be exported.  It was forbidden to export gold
   (The export of gold was prohibited). He has been proved to have been
   seen entering the building.  It has been proved that he was seen to
   enter the building.

   In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related
   to the second passive is made the subject of the first.

   A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun
   which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function
   beyond that of completing the sentence.

   A survey of this region was made in 1900. This region was surveyed in
   1900. Mobilization of the army was rapidly carried out.  The army was
   rapidly mobilized.  Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained.
   These reports cannot be confirmed.

   Compare the sentence, "The export of gold was prohibited," in which the
   predicate "was prohibited" expresses something not implied in "export."


4. Put statements in positive form.

   Make definite assertions.  Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating,
   non-committal language.  Use the word not as a means of denial or in
   antithesis, never as a means of evasion.

   He was not very often on time.  He usually came late.  He did not think
   that studying Latin was much use.  He thought the study of Latin
   useless.  The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots.  Shakespeare
   does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does
   Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's
   works.  The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive.
   Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant.

   The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative.
   The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's
   intention.

   All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not.
   Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told
   only what is not; he wishes to be told what is.  Hence, as a rule, it is
   better to express a negative in positive form.

   not honest dishonest not important trifling did not remember forgot did
   not pay any attention to ignored did not have much confidence in
   distrusted

   The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:

   Not charity, but simple justice.  Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome
   the more.

   Negative words other than not are usually strong:

   The sun never sets upon the British flag.


5. Omit needless words.

   Vigorous writing is concise.  A sentence should contain no unnecessary
   words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a
   drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary
   parts.  This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short,
   or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but
   that every word tell.

   Many expressions in common use violate this principle:

   the question as to whether whether (the question whether) there is no
   doubt but that no doubt (doubtless) used for fuel purposes used for fuel
   he is a man who he in a hasty manner hastily this is a subject which
   this subject His story is a strange one.  His story is strange.

   In especial the expression the fact that should be revised out of every
   sentence in which it occurs.

   owing to the fact that since (because) in spite of the fact that though
   (although) call your attention to the fact that remind you (notify you)
   I was unaware of the fact that I was unaware that (did not know) the
   fact that he had not succeeded his failure the fact that I had arrived
   my arrival

   See also under case, character, nature, system in Chapter V.

   Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous.

   His brother, who is a member of the same firm His brother, a member of
   the same firm Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle Trafalgar,
   Nelson's last battle

   As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active
   voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under
   Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.

   A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single
   complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences which might to
   advantage be combined into one.

   Macbeth was very ambitious.  This led him to wish to become king of
   Scotland.  The witches told him that this wish of his would come true.
   The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan.  Encouraged by his wife,
   Macbeth murdered Duncan.  He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king.
   (55 words.) Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and
   realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming
   king of Scotland in his place.  (26 words.)


6. Avoid a succession of loose sentences.

   This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type,
   those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a
   conjunction or relative.  Although single sentences of this type may be
   unexceptionable (see under Rule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and
   tedious.

   An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of
   sentences of this kind, using as connectives and, but, and less
   frequently, who, which, when, where, and while, these last in
   non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).

   The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and
   a large audience was in attendance.  Mr.  Edward Appleton was the
   soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental
   music.  The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank,
   while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation.
   The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the
   Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually
   hereafter.  The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an
   equally attractive programme will be presented.

   Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is bad
   because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical
   symmetry and sing-song.  Contrast with them the sentences in the
   paragraphs quoted under Rule 10, or in any piece of good English prose,
   as the preface (Before the Curtain) to Vanity Fair.

   If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the
   type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony,
   replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined
   by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences,
   loose or periodic, of three clauses--whichever best represent the real
   relations of the thought.


7. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.

   This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions
   of similar content and function should be outwardly similar.  The
   likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the
   likeness of content and function.  Familiar instances from the Bible are
   the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's
   Prayer.

   The unskilful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken
   belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions.  It
   is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may
   have need to vary its form.  For illustration, see the paragraph from
   Stevenson quoted under Rule 10. But apart from this, he should follow
   the principle of parallel construction.

   Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the
   laboratory method is employed.  Formerly, science was taught by the
   textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method.

   The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided
   or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and
   hold to it.  The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least
   made his choice and abided by it.

   By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the
   members of a series must either be used only before the first term or
   else be repeated before each term.

   The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese The French, the
   Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese In spring, summer, or in
   winter In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter)

   Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also;
   either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by
   the same grammatical construction.  Many violations of this rule can be
   corrected by rearranging the sentence.

   It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.  The ceremony was both
   long and tedious.  A time not for words, but action A time not for
   words, but for action Either you must grant his request or incur his ill
   will.  You must either grant his request or incur his ill will.  My
   objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is
   unconstitutional.  My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust;
   second, that it is unconstitutional.

   See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule 13.

   It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number
   of similar ideas, say twenty?  Must he write twenty consecutive
   sentences of the same pattern?  On closer examination he will probably
   find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be
   classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within
   each group.  Otherwise he had best avoid the difficulty by putting his
   statements in the form of a table.


8. Keep related words together.

   The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of
   showing their relationship.  The writer must therefore, so far as
   possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are
   related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.

   The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule,
   be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the
   beginning.

   Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The Excursion, gives a minute
   description of this church.  In the fifth book of The Excursion,
   Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church.  Cast iron, when
   treated in a Bessemer converter, is changed into steel.  By treatment in
   a Bessemer converter, cast iron is changed into steel.

   The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly
   interrupts the natural order of the main clause.  This objection,
   however, does not usually hold when the order is interrupted only by a
   relative clause or by an expression in apposition.  Nor does it hold in
   periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used
   means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).

   The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its
   antecedent.

   There was a look in his eye that boded mischief.  In his eye was a look
   that boded mischief.  He wrote three articles about his adventures in
   Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine.  He published in
   Harper's Magazine three articles about his adventures in Spain.  This is
   a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who
   became President in 1889. This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison,
   grandson of William Henry Harrison.  He became President in 1889.

   If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at
   the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.

   The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who A proposal to amend the
   Sherman Act, which has been variously judged A proposal, which has been
   variously judged, to amend the Sherman Act A proposal to amend the
   much-debated Sherman Act The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who
   William Henry Harrison's grandson, Benjamin Harrison, who

   A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because
   in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.

   The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs

   Modifiers should come, if possible next to the word they modify.  If
   several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged
   that no wrong relation is suggested.

   All the members were not present.  Not all the members were present.  He
   only found two mistakes.  He found only two mistakes.  Major R. E. Joyce
   will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the
   public is invited, on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia" at eight P. M. On
   Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give in Bailey
   Hall a lecture on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia."  The public is
   invited.


9. In summaries, keep to one tense.

   In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the
   present tense.  In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should
   preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers.
   If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be
   expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.

   An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar
   Lawrence's letter to Romeo.  Juliet, meanwhile, owing to her father's
   arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, has been compelled to
   drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar
   informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the
   nondelivery of the letter.

   But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect
   discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.

   The Legate inquires who struck the blow.

   Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he
   should use throughout.  Shifting from one tense to the other gives the
   appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).

   In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in
   summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid
   intercalating such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the speaker
   added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks," or
   the like.  He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that
   what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the
   notification.

   In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of
   one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary
   schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words.
   But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should
   be careful to avoid dropping into summary.  He may find it necessary to
   devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening
   situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to
   illustrate its qualities.  But he should aim to write an orderly
   discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment.
   Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he
   will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological
   order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general
   conclusions.


10. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.

   The proper place for the word, or group of words, which the writer
   desires to make most prominent is usually the end of the sentence.

   Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has
   advanced in many other ways.  Humanity, since that time, has advanced in
   many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.  This steel is
   principally used for making razors, because of its hardness.  Because of
   its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors.

   The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is
   usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in the sentence,
   as it is in the second example.

   The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence
   which it gives to the main statement.

   Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners
   whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the
   world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the
   Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers,
   lighted on America.  With these hopes and in this belief I would urge
   you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to
   devote yourselves unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and
   successful prosecution of this war.

   The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning.  Any
   element in the sentence, other than the subject, becomes emphatic when
   placed first.

   Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.  So vast and rude, fretted
   by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this
   architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

   A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by
   its position along.  In the sentence,

   Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

   the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from the
   context.  To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must
   take the position of the predicate.

   Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

   The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most
   prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the
   sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.




IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM


   Headings.  Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the
   title or heading of a manuscript.  On succeeding pages, if using ruled
   paper, begin on the first line.


   Numerals.  Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers.  Write them
   in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.

   August 9, 1918 Chapter XII Rule 3 352d Infantry


   Parentheses.  A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is
   punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the
   expression in parenthesis were absent.  The expression within is
   punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is
   omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.

   I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had
   left town.  He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that
   he is now certain of success.

   (When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the
   final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)


   Quotations.  Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are
   introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.

   The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid on
   articles exported from any state."

   Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs
   are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.

   I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense of
   benefits to come."  Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of nature."

   Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh
   line and centred, but not enclosed in quotation marks.

   Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded: Bliss
   was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven!

   Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirect discourse and
   not enclosed in quotation marks.

   Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.

   Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require
   no quotation marks.

   These are the times that try men's souls.  He lives far from the madding
   crowd.

   The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.


   References.  In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate
   titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical
   list at the end.  As a general practice, give the references in
   parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence.  Omit the
   words act, scene, line, book, volume, page, except when referring by
   only one of them.  Punctuate as indicated below.

   In the second scene of the third act In III.ii (still better, simply
   insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence) After
   the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.  ii.  14). 2
   Samuel i:17-27 Othello II.iii 264-267, III.iii.  155-161


   Titles.  For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers
   italics with capitalized initials.  The usage of editors and publishers
   varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman
   with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks.  Use
   italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for
   a periodical that follows a different practice.  Omit initial A or The
   from titles when you place the possessive before them.

   The Iliad; the Odyssey; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The Newcomes; A
   Tale of Two Cities; Dicken's Tale of Two Cities.




V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED


   (Many of the words and expressions here listed are not so much bad
   English as bad style, the commonplaces of careless writing.  As
   illustrated under Feature, the proper correction is likely to be not the
   replacement of one word or set of words by another, but the replacement
   of vague generality by definite statement.)


   All right.  Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the
   sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead."  In other uses better avoided.  Always
   written as two words.


   As good or better than.  Expressions of this type should be corrected by
   rearranging the sentence.

   My opinion is as good or better than his.  My opinion is as good as his,
   or better (if not better).


   As to whether. Whether is sufficient; see under Rule 13.


   Bid. Takes the infinitive without to. The past tense is bade.


   Case.  The Concise Oxford Dictionary begins its definition of this word:
   "instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs."  In these two
   senses, the word is usually unnecessary.

   In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated.  Many of the rooms were
   poorly ventilated.  It has rarely been the case that any mistake has
   been made.  Few mistakes have been made.

   See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp.  68-71, and Quiller-Couch, The Art
   of Writing, pp.  103-106.


   Certainly.  Used indiscriminately by some speakers, much as others use
   very, to intensify any and every statement.  A mannerism of this kind,
   bad in speech, is even worse in writing.


   Character. Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.

   Acts of a hostile character Hostile acts


   Claim, vb.  With object-noun, means lay claim to.  May be used with a
   dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: "He claimed that he
   was the sole surviving heir."  (But even here, "claimed to be" would be
   better.) Not to be used as a substitute for declare, maintain, or
   charge.


   Compare.  To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances, between
   objects regarded as essentially of different order; to compare with is
   mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially
   of the same order.  Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a
   drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British
   Parliament.  Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be
   compared with modern London.


   Clever.  This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to
   ingenuity displayed in small matters.


   Consider.  Not followed by as when it means, "believe to be."  "I
   consider him thoroughly competent."  Compare, "The lecturer considered
   Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator," where
   "considered" means "examined" or "discussed."


   Dependable. A needless substitute for reliable, trustworthy.


   Due to.  Incorrectly used for through, because of, or owing to, in
   adverbial phrases: "He lost the first game, due to carelessness."  In
   correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun:
   "This invention is due to Edison;" "losses due to preventable fires."


   Effect.  As noun, means result; as verb, means to bring about,
   accomplish (not to be confused with affect, which means "to influence").

   As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions,
   music, painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects in pale
   green;" "very delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtle effects;" "a
   charming effect was produced by."  The writer who has a definite meaning
   to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.


   Etc.  Not to be used of persons.  Equivalent to and the rest, and so
   forth, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient,
   that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important
   particulars.  Least open to objection when it represents the last terms
   of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a
   quotation.

   At the end of a list introduced by such as, for example, or any similar
   expression, etc.  is incorrect.


   Fact.  Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct
   verification, not of matters of judgment.  That a particular event
   happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are
   facts.  But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern
   generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however
   incontestable they may be, are not properly facts.

   On the formula the fact that, see under Rule 13.


   Factor.  A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can
   usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.

   His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match.  He
   won the match by being better trained.  Heavy artillery is becoming an
   increasingly important factor in deciding battles.  Heavy artillery is
   playing a larger and larger part in deciding battles.


   Feature.  Another hackneyed word; like factor it usually adds nothing to
   the sentence in which it occurs.

   A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the
   singing of Miss A. (Better use the same number of words to tell what
   Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell
   something of how she sang.)

   As a verb, in the advertising sense of offer as a special attraction, to
   be avoided.


   Fix.  Colloquial in America for arrange, prepare, mend.  In writing
   restrict it to its literary senses, fasten, make firm or immovable, etc.


   He is a man who. A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13.

   He is a man who is very ambitious.  He is very ambitious.  Spain is a
   country which I have always wanted to visit.  I have always wanted to
   visit Spain.


   However.  In the meaning nevertheless, not to come first in its sentence
   or clause.

   The roads were almost impassable.  However, we at last succeeded in
   reaching camp.  The roads were almost impassable.  At last, however, we
   succeeded in reaching camp.

   When however comes first, it means in whatever way or to whatever extent.

   However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.  However
   discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.


   Kind of.  Not to be used as a substitute for rather (before adjectives
   and verbs), or except in familiar style, for something like (before
   nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: "Amber is a kind of fossil
   resin;" "I dislike that kind of notoriety."  The same holds true of sort
   of.


   Less. Should not be misused for fewer.

   He had less men than in the previous campaign.  He had fewer men than in
   the previous campaign.

   Less refers to quantity, fewer to number.  "His troubles are less than
   mine" means "His troubles are not so great as mine."  "His troubles are
   fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous as mine."  It
   is, however, correct to say, "The signers of the petition were less than
   a hundred, "where the round number, a hundred, is something like a
   collective noun, and less is thought of as meaning a less quantity or
   amount.


   Line, along these lines.  Line in the sense of course of procedure,
   conduct, thought, is allowable, but has been so much overworked,
   particularly in the phrase along these lines, that a writer who aims at
   freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

   Mr.  B. also spoke along the same lines.  Mr.  B. also spoke, to the
   same effect.  He is studying along the line of French literature.  He is
   studying French literature.


   Literal, literally.  Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration
   or violent metaphor.

   A literal flood of abuse A flood of abuse Literally dead with fatigue
   Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired)


   Lose out.  Meant to be more emphatic than lose, but actually less so,
   because of its commonness.  The same holds true of try out, win out,
   sign up, register up.  With a number of verbs, out and up form idiomatic
   combinations: find out, run out, turn out, cheer up, dry up, make up,
   and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb.  Lose
   out is not.


   Most. Not to be used for almost.

   Most everybody Almost everybody Most all the time Almost all the time


   Nature. Often simply redundant, used like character.

   Acts of a hostile nature Hostile acts

   Often vaguely used in such expressions as "a lover of nature;" "poems
   about nature."  Unless more specific statements follow, the reader
   cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural
   life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.


   Near by.  Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English,
   though the analogy of close by and hard by seems to justify it.  Near,
   or near at hand, is as good, if not better.

   Not to be used as an adjective; use neighboring.


   Oftentimes, ofttimes.  Archaic forms, no longer in good use.  The modern
   word is often.


   One hundred and one.  Retain the and in this and similar expressions, in
   accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English
   times.


   One of the most.  Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this
   formula, as, "One of the most interesting developments of modern science
   is, etc.;" "Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of
   Europe."  There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and
   forcible-feeble.


   People.  The people is a political term, not to be confused with the
   public.  From the people comes political support or opposition; from the
   public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.

   The word people is not to be used with words of number, in place of
   persons.  If of "six people" five went away, how many "people" would be
   left?


   Phase.  Means a stage of transition or development: "the phases of the
   moon;" "the last phase."  Not to be used for aspect or topic.

   Another phase of the subject Another point (another question)


   Possess. Not to be used as a mere substitute for have or own.

   He possessed great courage.  He had great courage (was very brave). He
   was the fortunate possessor of He owned


   Respective, respectively. These words may usually be omitted with advantage.

   Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors.
   Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors.  The one
   mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively.  The
   one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings.

   In some kinds of formal writing, as in geometrical proofs, it may be
   necessary to use respectively, but it should not appear in writing on
   ordinary subjects.


   So.  Avoid, in writing, the use of so as an intensifier: "so good;" "so
   warm;" "so delightful."

   On the use of so to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.


   Sort of. See under Kind of.


   State.  Not to be used as a mere substitute for say, remark.  Restrict
   it to the sense of express fully or clearly, as, "He refused to state
   his objections."


   Student body.  A needless and awkward expression, meaning no more than
   the simple word students.

   A member of the student body A student Popular with the student body
   Liked by the students The student body passed resolutions.  The students
   passed resolutions.


   System. Frequently used without need.

   Dayton has adopted the commission system of government.  Dayton has
   adopted government by commission.  The dormitory system Dormitories


   Thanking you in advance.  This sounds as if the writer meant, "It will
   not be worth my while to write to you again."  Simply write, "Thanking
   you," and if the favor which you have requested is granted, write a
   letter of acknowledgment.


   They.  A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the
   antecedent is a distributive expression such as each, each one,
   everybody, every one, many a man, which, though implying more than one
   person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular.  Similar to this,
   but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with
   the antecedent anybody, any one, somebody, some one, the intention being
   either to avoid the awkward "he or she," or to avoid committing oneself
   to either.  Some bashful speakers even say, "A friend of mine told me
   that they, etc."

   Use he with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be
   feminine.


   Very.  Use this word sparingly.  Where emphasis is necessary, use words
   strong in themselves.


   Viewpoint.  Write point of view, but do not misuse this, as many do, for
   view or opinion.


   While.  Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and, but, and
   although.  Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for and or
   but, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from
   uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate.  In
   this use it is best replaced by a semicolon.

   The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the
   building is devoted to manufacturing.  The office and salesrooms are on
   the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing.

   Its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable in sentences
   where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.

   While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.

   This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase,

   I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a
   better cause.

   Compare:

   While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the
   nights are often chilly.  Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95
   degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly.

   The paraphrase,

   The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same
   time the nights are often chilly,

   shows why the use of while is incorrect.

   In general, the writer will do well to use while only with strict
   literalness, in the sense of during the time that.


   Whom.  Often incorrectly used for who before he said or similar
   expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb.

   His brother, whom he said would send him the money His brother, who he
   said would send him the money The man whom he thought was his friend The
   man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend)


   Worth while.  Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with not) of
   disapproval.  Strictly applicable only to actions: "Is it worth while to
   telegraph?"

   His books are not worth while.  His books are not worth reading (not
   worth one's while to read; do not repay reading).

   The use of worth while before a noun ("a worth while story") is
   indefensible.


   Would. A conditional statement in the first person requires should, not
   would.

   I should not have succeeded without his help.

   The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the past
   tense is should, not would.

   He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.

   To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without would,
   is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.

   Once a year he would visit the old mansion.  Once a year he visited the
   old mansion.





VI. WORDS OFTEN MISSPELLED


accidentally formerly privilege advice humorous pursue affect hypocrisy
repetition beginning immediately rhyme believe incidentally rhythm benefit
latter ridiculous challenge led sacrilegious criticize lose seize deceive
marriage separate definite mischief shepherd describe murmur siege despise
necessary similar develop occurred simile disappoint parallel too duel
Philip tragedy ecstasy playwright tries effect preceding undoubtedly
existence prejudice until fiery principal

Write to-day, to-night, to-morrow (but not together) with hyphen.

Write any one, every one, some one, some time (except the sense of
formerly) as two words.


THE END